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Metal-Organic Frameworks

Synthesis, Characterization, and Biomedical Applications
Edited by Sumel Ashique, Biplab Debnath, and Mohammad Yousuf Ansari
Copyright: 2026   |   Expected Pub Date: 2026
ISBN: 9781394486403  |  Hardcover  |  
364 pages
Price: $225 USD
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One Line Description
Unlock the future of nanomedicine with this definitive guide to metal-organic frameworks, offering researchers the essential synthetic techniques, cutting-edge biomedical applications, and crucial safety insights needed to develop next-generation targeted therapies and diagnostic tools.

Description
Metal-organic frameworks have emerged as revolutionary platforms for biomedical innovation due to their versatility as porous materials with tailored structures.This book provides a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted world of metal-organic frameworks, beginning with their synthesis and progressing to their advanced applications in biomedicine. Through foundational knowledge and specialized insights, each chapter combines theoretical frameworks with experimental methodologies. The book details various synthetic strategies for metal-organic frameworks, including solvothermal, microwave-assisted, and green synthesis approaches. It also delves into post-synthetic modifications, such as functionalization and metal exchange, which expand the utility of metal-organic frameworks for biomedical purposes. Focusing on biomedical applications, including drug delivery, imaging, diagnostics, and antimicrobial therapies, the book addresses metal-organic framework-based innovations in photodynamic and photothermal cancer therapies, biocompatibility studies, and toxicity mitigation strategies, providing actionable insights for researchers aiming to develop safe and effective metal-organic framework-based systems.

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Author / Editor Details
Sumel Ashique is an Assistant Professor at Bharat Technology, Uluberia, India with more than four years of experience. He has published 80 articles in national and international journals, 20 book chapters, more than 20 books, and five patents. His research focuses on drug delivery, nanotechnology, and targeted treatment strategies.

Biplab Debnath, PhD is a Principal and Professor at Bharat Technology, Uluberia, West Bengal. He has made significant contributions to the field, publishing more than 60 research and review papers in esteemed journals, two granted patents, five book chapters, and eight books. His research expertise lies in silico synthesis and biological activities of novel heterocyclic molecules.

Mohammad Yousuf Ansari, PhD is a Professor and Head of the Ibne Seena College of Pharmacy, Azmi Vidya Nagri, Anjhi Shahabad, India. He has published more than 65 full research papers, three book chapters, and one UK patent. His research interests include translational and practical methods to generate new ways to fight against disease conditions.

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Table of Contents
Preface
1. Introduction to Metal-Organic Frameworks: Properties, Diversity, and Biomedical Relevance
Subhankar Maity, Mrinmoy Pal, Arindam Maity, Saikatendu Deb Roy and Debanjan Sen
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Origin and History of Biomedical Field
1.1.2 Applications of Biomedical Field
1.1.3 Role in Society
1.2 Overview and Biomedical Significance of MOFs
1.2.1 Origin and Evolution of MOFs
1.2.2 Growing Interest in Biomedical Applications
1.2.3 Overview of MOF Capabilities in Medicine
1.2.4 Basic Properties of MOFs
1.2.5 Important Influencing Factors in MOF Synthesis
1.3 Classification of Metal-Organic Framework
1.3.1 Classification of MOFs Based on Metal Centers
1.3.1.1 Transition Metal–Based MOFs
1.3.1.2 Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metal–Based MOFs
1.3.1.3 Lanthanide-Based MOFs (Ln-MOFs)
1.3.1.4 Actinide-Based MOFs (An-MOFs)
1.3.1.5 Noble Metal–Based MOFs
1.3.1.6 High-Valence Metal Cluster–Based MOFs
1.3.1.7 Mixed-Metal MOFs
1.3.2 Based on Organic Linkers
1.3.2.1 Carboxylate-Based MOFs
1.3.2.2 Nitrogen-Based MOFs
1.3.2.3 Mixed-Ligand MOFs
1.3.3 Classification Based on Dimensionality
1.3.3.1 1D, 0D, 2D, and 3D
1.3.3.2 Nano-MOFs in Biomedicine
1.4 Different Types of MOFs
1.4.1 Isoreticular MOFs
1.4.2 Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks (ZIFs)
1.4.3 Porous Coordination Networks (PCNs)
1.4.4 Materials Institute Lavoisier (MIL) MOF
1.4.5 Porous Coordination Polymers (PCPs)
1.4.6 University of Oslo (UiO) MOFs
1.5 Nomenclature of MOFs
1.6 Structural Diversity and Functionalization Possibilities
1.6.1 Topological Structural Diversity
1.6.2 Cage-Based Structural Diversity
1.7 Possible Functionalization Diversity
1.7.1 Pre-Synthetic Modification (PSM Before Synthesis)
1.7.2 Post-Synthetic Modification (PSM After Synthesis)
1.7.3 Hybrid (Polymer-MOF Composites) Versions
1.8 Synthesis of MOFs
1.8.1 Methods of Traditional Synthesis
1.8.2 Synthesis of MOFs Using Microwaves
1.8.3 Sono-Chemical Method
1.8.4 Electrochemical Method
1.8.5 Mechanochemical Method
1.8.6 Room-Temperature Method
1.8.7 Diffusion Method
1.9 Characterization of MOFs
1.10 Biomedical Applications of MOFs
1.10.1 Bioimaging
1.10.1.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
1.10.1.2 Computed Tomography (CT)
1.10.1.3 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
1.10.1.4 Optical Imaging (OI)
1.10.2 Biosensing
1.10.2.1 Aptamers (DNA/RNA)–Based Sensing
1.10.2.2 Enzyme-Based Sensing
1.10.2.3 Small-Biomolecule Sensing
1.10.3 MOFs in Drug Delivery
1.10.4 MOFs in Gas Delivery System
1.10.5 MOFs Role as Detoxifying/Capturing Agent
1.10.6 MOFs in Tissue Engineering and Regeneration
1.11 Relevance of MOFs in Biomedical Science
1.11.1 Comparison to Conventional Nanocarriers
1.11.2 Some of the Advantages of MOFs in Biomedicine
1.11.3 Limitations
1.12 Future Studies of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
1.13 Conclusion
References
2. Synthesis Strategies for Metal-Organic Frameworks: Conventional, Advanced, and Sustainable Approaches
Sabyasachi Banerjee, Subhasis Banerjee, S. K. Ashok Kumar,
Tushakha Mallick and Sourav De
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Synthesis of MOFs
2.2.1 Conventional Synthesis Methods
2.2.1.1 Solvo(Hydro)-Thermal Method
2.2.1.2 Solvothermal Synthesis of MOFs
2.2.1.3 Slow Evaporation and Diffusion Methods
2.2.2 Advanced Synthetic Techniques
2.2.2.1 Microwave-Assisted Method
2.2.2.2 Sonochemical Method
2.2.2.3 Mechanochemical Method
2.2.2.4 Electrochemical Method
2.2.2.5 Microemulsion Method
2.2.2.6 Template Strategies
2.2.3 Sustainable and Green Synthesis Approaches
2.3 Post-Synthetic Modification
2.4 Miscellaneous Methods for Synthesis of MOFs
2.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
3. Post-Synthetic Modification of Metal-Organic Framework:
Functionalization, Engineering, and Integration
Soumya Datta, Pradip Jana, Saikat Sen, Rajarshi Nath, Manik Ghosh and Barij N. Sinha
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Post-Synthetic Modifications (PSMs) in Metal-Organic Frameworks
3.2.1 Methods of PSM in MOFs
3.2.1.1 Metal-Based Modifications
3.2.1.2 Ligand-Based Modifications
3.2.1.3 Concurrent Exchange of Metal and Ligand
3.2.1.4 Guest Inclusion
3.2.2 Applications of PSM in MOFs
3.2.2.1 Biological Applications
3.2.2.2 Photocatalysis
3.2.2.3 Surface Modification
3.2.2.4 Dye and Toxic Metal Encapsulation
3.2.2.5 Chemical Sensor
3.3 Conclusion
References
4. Characterization Techniques for Metal-Organic Frameworks: Structural, Morphological, and Spectroscopic Approaches
Bhupender Nehra, Jitender Singh, Sunaina Demiwal, Rishabh Kasnia, Vipin Saini and Sabina Yasmin
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Characterization Techniques Used to Analyze Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
4.2.1 Structural Characterization Techniques for Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
4.2.2 Morphological Characterization Techniques for Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
4.2.3 Spectroscopic Characterization Techniques for Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
4.3 Compiled Recent Articles Based on Characterization Approaches for Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
4.4 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
5. Metal-Organic Frameworks for Drug Delivery: Loading
Mechanisms, Controlled Release, and Biocompatibility
Kuntal Manna, Suman Sahu, Soumya Pal and Avijit Kumar Dey
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification of MOFs by Metal Ions
5.2.1 Iron-Based MOFs
5.2.2 Zinc-Based MOFs
5.2.3 Zirconium-Based MOFs
5.2.4 Potassium-Based MOFs
5.2.5 Copper-Based MOFs
5.3 Modification of MOFs by Different Loading Strategies
5.3.1 Post-Synthetic Modification
5.3.1.1 Component Replacement
5.3.1.2 Decoration of Chemical Function
5.3.2 In Situ Modification
5.3.2.1 In Situ Hybridization
5.3.2.2 Encapsulation Inside Cages
5.4 Mechanism of Controlled Drug Release
5.4.1 pH-Responsive Release
5.4.2 Redox-Triggered Release
5.4.3 Enzyme-Mediated Release
5.4.4 Magnetically Responsive Release
5.4.5 Ion-Responsive Release
5.5 Biocompatibility of MOFs
5.5.1 Nature of the Building Blocks
5.5.2 Physiological Properties
5.5.2.1 Size
5.5.2.2 Stability
5.6 Case Studies and Applications
5.6.1 Different MOFs Used as Chemotherapeutic Agents
5.6.2 MOFs for Protein and Gene Delivery
5.6.3 MOFs for Different Pharmacological Activities
5.6.4 Mixed-Metal MOFs
5.7 Challenges and Future Prospects
5.8 Conclusion
References
6. Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for Gene and Protein
Delivery: Delivery of siRNA, DNA, and Proteins, MOFs in Gene Editing (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9 Delivery)
Bhaskar Jyoti Sharma, Abu Saif Mustaque, Sudipta Sarkar, Sunirmal Bhattacharjee and Subhashis Debnath
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design Principles and Delivery Mechanisms of MOFs
6.2.1 The Building Blocks: A Lego-Like Approach to Material Design
6.2.2 Ensuring Stability: A Prerequisite for Biomedical Application
6.2.3 Synthesizing MOF Nanoparticles: Control at the Nanoscale
6.2.4 Functionalization: Tailoring MOFs for Specific Tasks
6.2.5 The Journey of a MOF Carrier: From Administration to Action
6.3 MOFs for Gene and siRNA/miRNA Delivery
6.3.1 Designing MOFs for Nucleic Acids
6.3.2 Mechanisms of Cargo Encapsulation and Controlled Release
6.4 MOFs for Protein Delivery
6.4.1 The Fragility of Proteins
6.4.2 MOFs as “Nano-Bioreactors”
6.4.3 Preservation and On-Demand Release
6.5 MOFs in Gene-Editing Delivery (CRISPR-Cas9 and Related Systems)
6.5.1 The Cargo Options for CRISPR Delivery
6.5.2 MOFs to the Rescue: Protecting the Precision Scissors
6.6 Safety, Biocompatibility, and Translational Considerations
6.6.1 Biocompatibility: Body Reactions to MOFs
6.6.2 The Manufacturing Hurdle: Scaling Up with Quality
6.6.3 Operating in a Regulatory Environment
6.7 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
7. MOFs in Cancer Therapy: Delivery of Chemotherapeutics, MOFs for Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy
Subarna Mahanti, Prottay Dutta, Srijani Dasgupta, Banani Mondal and Manik Ghosh
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Chemical and Pharmaceutical Aspects of MOFs
7.2.1 Composition: Metal Nodes and Organic Linkers
7.2.2 Synthesis Methods Relevant to Pharmaceutics
7.3 MOFs as Drug Delivery Vehicles
7.3.1 Mechanisms of Drug Encapsulation
7.3.1.1 Physisorption in Intrinsic Pores
7.3.1.2 Coordination of Chelation to Metal Nodes
7.3.1.3 Pro- and Post-Synthetic Covalent Linker Conjugation
7.3.2 Stability and Controlled Release Kinetics
7.4 Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
7.4.1 Absorption and Distribution
7.4.2 Metabolism and Excretion
7.4.3 Bioavailability and Therapeutic Index
7.4.4 Toxicological Evaluations
7.5 MOFs in Chemotherapeutic Drug Delivery
7.5.1 Encapsulation and Loading
7.5.2 Controlled and Stimuli-Responsive Release
7.5.3 Targeted Delivery
7.5.4 In Vitro and In Vivo Performance
7.5.5 Case Studies
7.6 MOFs in Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
7.6.1 Pharmaceutical Basis
7.6.2 MOFs as Carriers of Photosensitizers
7.6.3 ROS Generation Mechanisms
7.6.4 Case Studies
7.7 MOFs in Photothermal Therapy (PTT)
7.7.1 Heat-Triggered Cytotoxicity
7.7.2 MOF Materials with Photothermal Properties
7.7.3 Combined Chemotherapy and PTT
7.7.4 Case Studies Synergistic Cancer Therapy Using Copper Sulfide-Based Photothermal Nanoplatforms and Gene Delivery
7.8 Multimodal MOF-Based Cancer Therapy
7.8.1 Synergistic MOF Systems
7.8.2 MOF Theranostics
7.8.3 Nanohybrids with Other Agents
7.9 Challenges and Safety Considerations
7.9.1 Stability Under Physiological Conditions
7.9.2 Potential Toxicity and Immunogenicity
7.9.3 Scale-Up and Regulatory Barriers
7.9.4 Clinical Translation Obstacles
7.10 Future Directions
7.10.1 AI-Assisted MOF Design
7.10.2 Personalized Medicine
7.10.3 Integration with Immunotherapy and Gene Delivery
7.10.4 Smart and Adaptive MOFs
References
8. Metal-Organic Frameworks in Imaging and Diagnostics: Contrast Agents, Real-Time Monitoring, and Theranostics
Samarendra Singh, Saloni Guleria, Aditya Raj, Gautam Singh and Navjot Kaur Sandhu
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Biomedical Imaging: An Overview
8.1.2 Role of Nanomaterials in Diagnostics
8.1.3 Advantages of MOFs in Imaging and Diagnostics
8.2 Physicochemical Properties of MOFs Relevant to Imaging
8.2.1 Porosity and Surface Area
8.2.2 Modular Design and Functionalization
8.2.3 Stimuli-Responsive Characteristics
8.3 MOFs as Contrast Agents in Imaging Modalities
8.3.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
8.3.2 Computed Tomography (CT)
8.3.3 Fluorescence Imaging
8.3.4 Photoacoustic Imaging
8.3.5 Other Emerging Imaging Techniques
8.4 MOFs for Real-Time Monitoring of Disease Biomarkers
8.4.1 Dynamic Disease Progression Tracking
8.4.2 Monitoring of Physiological Changes
8.4.3 Molecular Surveillance Platforms
8.5 Theranostic MOFs: Dual Role in Imaging and Therapy
8.5.1 Concept and Design of Theranostic Platforms
8.5.2 Targeting Cancer, Neurodegenerative, and Infectious Diseases
8.5.3 Controlled Drug Release and Imaging Feedback Loops
8.6 Challenges and Limitations
8.6.1 Toxicity and Biocompatibility Issues
8.6.2 Clearance and Biodistribution
8.6.3 Scale-Up and Clinical Translation Barriers
8.7 Future Perspectives and Trends
8.7.1 Integration with Artificial Intelligence
8.7.2 Development of Multimodal Imaging Systems
8.7.3 Personalized and Precision Diagnostic Tools
Conclusion
References
9. Antimicrobial and Anticancer Applications of Metal-Organic Frameworks: Therapeutic Strategies and Combination
Therapies
Sourav De, Sabyasachi Banerjee, S. K. Ashok Kumar, Kaushik Biswas and Subhasis Banerjee
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Antimicrobial Applications of MOFs
9.3 Antifungal Activities of MOFs
9.4 Antiviral Activities of MOFs
9.5 Antiparasitic Activities of MOFs
9.6 Anticancer Applications of MOFs
9.7 MOFs in Detecting Cancer Biomarkers
9.8 MOFs for Enhanced Cancer Therapy
9.9 Multifunctional MOFs for Cancer Theranostics
9.10 Conclusions, Challenges, and Future Perspectives
References
10. MOFs in Biosensors and Bioelectronics: Electrochemical
and Optical Biosensors, MOFs for Wearable Diagnostics
Anjana Sinha, Manik Ghosh, Shailesh Narayan, Gaurav Ranjan and Arjun Patra
10.1 Introduction to Metal-Organic Frameworks: Properties,
Diversity, and Biomedical Relevance
10.1.1 Key Properties of MOFs
10.1.2 Structural and Compositional Diversity
10.1.3 Biomedical Relevance and Applications
10.1.4 Synthesis Strategies for Metal-Organic Frameworks: Conventional, Advanced, and Sustainable Approaches
10.1.5 Comparative Analysis and Future Directions
10.1.6 Conclusion
10.2 MOFs in Optical Biosensors
10.2.1 Principles of Optical Biosensing with MOFs
10.2.2 Applications in Fluorescence, Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS), and Other Optical Techniques
10.2.3 Examples of MOF-Based Optical Biosensors
10.2.3.1 Imidazole Framework (ZIF)–Based MOF-OMS Composites
10.2.3.2 Zr(IV)-Based MOF-OMS Composites
10.2.3.3 MIL-53 MOFs
10.3 MOFs for Wearable Diagnostics
10.3.1 Overview of Wearable Diagnostics and Their Importance
10.3.2 MOF-Based Wearable Biosensors: Design, Fabrication, and Performance
10.3.3 Challenges and Future Directions for MOFs in Wearable Diagnostics
10.4 Conclusion
10.4.1 Summary of Key Findings
10.4.2 Future Prospects and Potential Applications of MOFs in Biosensing and Bioelectronics
References

11. Metal-Organic Frameworks in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine: Scaffolds, Hybrids, and Future Prospects
Ishika Mishra, Biswajit Patra, Mrinmoy Pal, Anuva Samanta and Arindam Maity
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Overview of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
11.1.2 Introduction to Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
11.1.3 Scope and Relevance of MOFs in Biomedical Applications
11.2 Fundamentals of MOFs
11.2.1 Structure and Composition of MOFs
11.2.1.1 Primary Building Units
11.2.1.2 Secondary Building Units
11.2.2 Synthesis Techniques of MOFs
11.2.2.1 Solvothermal Method
11.2.2.2 Room Temperature Synthesis or Modular Synthesis
11.2.2.3 Microwave-Assisted Method
11.2.2.4 Electrochemical Synthesis
11.2.2.5 In Situ Growth
11.2.2.6 Sonochemical Method
11.2.3 Properties Relevant to Biomedicine
11.2.3.1 High Porosity and Surface Area
11.2.3.2 Biocompatibility and Degradability
11.2.3.3 Multifunctionality
11.3 MOF-Based Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering
11.3.1 Importance of Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering
11.3.2 MOF-Polymer Composites and Their Fabrication Techniques
11.3.2.1 Electrospinning
11.3.2.2 Freeze Drying
11.3.2.3 3D Printing
11.3.3 Mechanical Strength and Biodegradability of MOF-Based Scaffolds
11.3.3.1 Mechanical Strength
11.3.3.2 Biodegradability
11.3.4 In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of MOF Scaffolds
11.3.4.1 In Vitro Evaluation
11.3.4.2 In Vivo Evaluation
11.4 Stimuli-Responsive and Functional MOFs
11.4.1 pH-Responsive MOFs
11.4.2 Redox and Temperature-Responsive MOFs
11.4.3 MOFs for Targeted Drug Delivery and Controlled Release
11.4.3.1 Targeted Drug Delivery
11.4.3.2 Controlled Release
11.5 Applications in Specific Tissue Types
11.5.1 MOFs for Bone Regeneration
11.5.2 MOFs for Nerve Regeneration
11.5.3 MOFs for Anti-Inflammatory
11.5.4 MOFs for Antibacterial
11.5.5 MOFs for Angiogenesis Promotion
11.6 Hybrid Systems: Combining MOFs with Natural and Synthetic Biomaterials
11.6.1 MOF-Bioceramic Hybrids
11.6.2 MOF-Protein and MOF-Polysaccharide Composites
11.6.3 MOFs and Smart Hydrogels for Advanced Applications
11.7 Toxicity, Biocompatibility, and Regulatory Concerns
11.7.1 Cytotoxicity and Degradation Studies
11.7.2 Strategies for Enhancing Biocompatibility
11.7.3 Clinical Translation of MOFs and Regulatory Landscape MOFs
11.8 Future Prospects and Challenges
11.8.1 Multifunctional and Intelligent MOFs
11.8.1.1 Multifunctional MOFs
11.8.1.2 Intelligent MOFs
11.8.2 Characterization and Scalability of MOF Production
11.8.2.1 XRD Analysis
11.8.2.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
11.8.2.3 SEM and TEM
11.8.2.4 Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Spectroscopy
11.8.2.5 Scalability of MOF Production
11.8.3 Integration with Emerging Technologies
11.8.3.1 3D Bioprinting
11.8.3.2 Biosensing
11.9 Conclusion
References
12. Toxicity and Biocompatibility of Metal-Organic Frameworks: Biological Interactions, Assessment, and Enhancement Strategies
Arunabha Dasgupta, Suman Layek, Sukhendu Kundu, Arnab Seth and Mainak Chatterjee
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Overview of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
12.1.2 Importance of MOFs in Biomedical and Environmental Applications
12.1.3 Scope and Objective of the Study
12.2 Structure and Properties of MOFs
12.2.1 Composition and Design Flexibility
12.2.2 Surface Area, Porosity, and Functionalization
12.2.3 Stability and Degradability in Biological Media
12.3 Biological Interactions of MOFs
12.3.1 Cellular Uptake and Biodistribution
12.3.2 Protein Corona Formation
12.3.3 Immunological Responses
12.3.4 Interaction with Organs and Tissues
12.4 Mechanisms of MOF Toxicity
12.4.1 Ion Leaching and Metal Toxicity
12.4.2 Oxidative Stress and ROS Generation-
12.4.3 DNA Damage and Genotoxicity
12.4.4 Inflammation and Cytokine Production
12.4.5 Long-Term Accumulation and Chronic Effects
12.5 Biocompatibility Assessment Methods
12.5.1 In Vitro Cytotoxicity Assays (e.g., MTT, LDH, and Live/Dead)
12.5.2 In Vivo Toxicological Studies
12.5.3 Hemocompatibility and Immunogenicity Testing
12.5.4 Biodistribution and Clearance Analysis
12.6 Factors Influencing MOF Toxicity
12.6.1 Metal Node Type and Concentration
12.6.2 Organic Linker Chemistry
12.6.3 Particle Size, Shape, and Surface Charge
12.6.4 Surface Coating and Functional Groups
12.7 Strategies for Enhancing MOF Biocompatibility
12.7.1 Surface Modification (PEGylation and Biomolecule Coating)
12.7.2 Metal Ion Substitution and Green Chemistry Approaches
12.7.3 Controlled Degradability and Triggered Release Systems
12.7.4 Core-Shell and Hybrid MOF Architectures
12.8 Applications of Biocompatible MOFs
12.8.1 Drug Delivery and Controlled Release
12.8.2 Biosensing and Imaging
12.8.3 Antibacterial and Anticancer Applications
12.8.4 Environmental Detoxification and Remediation
12.9 Regulatory and Safety Considerations
12.9.1 Current Regulatory Frameworks
12.9.2 Data Gaps and Risk Assessment Challenges
12.9.3 Recommendations for Safe-by-Design Approaches
12.10 Future Perspectives
12.10.1 Emerging Trends in MOF Design for Biocompatibility
12.10.2 Integration with Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Big Data
12.10.3 Interdisciplinary Research Directions
12.11 Conclusion
References
13. Stability and Biocompatibility of MOFs: Stability in Aqueous and Biological Media
Kamaljeet, Abhishek Vijukumar, Amandeep Singh and Sourabh Kosey
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Structural Determinants of MOF Stability
13.2.1 Role of Metal Nodes and Organic Linkers
13.2.2 Topological and Crystallographic Factors
13.3 Stability of MOFs in Aqueous Media
13.3.1 Hydrolytic Degradation Mechanisms
13.3.2 Strategies to Enhance Water Stability
13.3.3 Case Studies of Water-Stable MOFs
13.4 Stability of MOFs in Biological Media
13.4.1 Interactions with Biomolecules (Proteins, Enzymes, and Ions)
13.4.2 Stability in Simulated Body Fluids and Cell Culture Media
13.4.3 Effect of pH, Ionic Strength, and Redox Conditions
13.4.4 In Vivo Stability Profiles
13.5 Biocompatibility of MOFs
13.5.1 Factors Influencing Biocompatibility
13.5.2 In Vitro Studies
13.5.3 In Vivo Biocompatibility
13.6 Surface Functionalization to Improve Stability and Biocompatibility
13.7 Regulatory and Translational Perspectives
13.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
14. Challenges, Future Direction, and Commercialization of Metal-Organic Frameworks: Scaling, Regulation, and Emerging Trends
Debajit Dewan, Parag Ghosh, Biplab Debnath, Nilotpal Tumung and Soma Jana
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Historical Development and Milestones of MOFs
14.1.2 Importance of MOFs in Advanced Materials Science
14.2 Challenges in MOF Scale-Up and Manufacturing
14.3 Regulatory and Safety Considerations
14.4 Future Directions in MOF Design and Applications
14.4.1 Green and Sustainable Synthesis Methods
14.4.2 Post-Synthetic Modification and Functionalization
14.4.3 MOFs for Targeted Drug Delivery and Catalytic Applications
14.5 Emerging Trends in MOF Technologies
14.5.1 MOFs in Energy Storage and Conversion
14.5.2 MOF-Based Sensors for Environmental Monitoring
14.5.3 Flexible and Wearable Electronics
14.6 Commercialization Pathways and Industry Adoption
14.7 Conclusion
References
Index

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